So long as man can remember others have been dishonest and there was a search for the truth and attempts to detect deception. Methods included different means including torture and in more civilised society’s trial by ordeal. Different people wrote on the topic but perhaps an essay by Daniel Defoe is the earliest record of it was suggested that medical science could be utilised for this very purpose. He wrote in 1730 that "taking the pulse" could be a practical way of telling and more humane in identifying the criminal.There are records dating back to reports from the Middle Ages indicating that pulse rate then was used to detect infidelity. But only in the nineteenth century did science came to the aid of the investigator when Angelo Mosso an Italian physiologist produced useful research results. Mosso’s studies showed tremendous advancement in the area of the influence of fear and the flow of blood in the brain. He was also the first to report on the breathing pattern changed under certain stimuli. Mosso’s tutor Cezarre Lambroso did not limit his research to the laboratory but used the knowledge gained in investigations where he assisted police in identifying criminal suspects. This he wrote about in 1895. Some of his sensational findings were later verified. Max Wertheimer at the Physiological Institute made another important contribution at the University of Praga in the year 1904. He suggested the use of various physiological recording devices available at the time and referred to by Mosso and Lambroso.In 1908 Hugo Munsterberg, a Harvard Psychology professor suggested that deception could be established by means of the use of physiological recording devices. The next major contribution came from Italy where Vittorio Benussi presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian Society for Psychology in Rome in March 1913. He was the first to use heart rate, blood pressure curve and breathing phenomena to detect deception. He showed that behavioural observations did not fare better than chance when detecting deception while pneumograph or breathing pattern recordings could establish deception almost 100% accurately.In 1915 William Marston an American scientist built and used a systolic blood pressure deception test. All evidence indicates that at the time he was using very advanced question techniques in some of his cases but kept this secret because he was afraid the criminals would learn about his ability to more clinically isolate truthful examinees.During World War 1 the Secretary of War used the polygraph in counterintelligence investigations. Dr Marston helped them as far back as 1917-1918. The work of the latter inspired John Larson of the Berkeley California Police Department. He built a portable polygraphic device which recorded continuously cardiovascular responses as well as respiration. It was used extensively in criminal investigations with much success.In the decade between 1920 and 1930 polygraph instruments of kinds were built in Germany as well as Japan. Togawa a Japanese psychologist tested the first practical case when a spy was to be identified and he focussed on skin conductance to further his technique. The Metropolitan Police acquired a Japanese instrument built by the Yokokawa Denki Corporation in 1947 and comprised a psychogalvanometer.The Keeler instrument became more popular and before long most Japanese police departments used it. Japan frequently admitted polygraph evidence in their courts since then and reportedly there are more than hundred practising forensic psychophysiologists. In 1938 he added a third physiological measuring component namely the psychogalvanometer.Father Walter G. Summers of the Department of Psychology at Fordham University conducted more than 6000 laboratory experiments and about 50 actual cases involving guilt or innocence of criminal suspects, obtaining an accuracy rate of between 98 and 100 percent. It was reported in 1936.It is known that the FBI in the USA purchased instruments as far back as the early 1930’s. The same man who developed their instruments was at that stage already very successful even when using less reliable question techniques. Leonard Keeler was one of the most important figures ever to contribute to this field of endeavour. By 1942 Keeler had begun to train police and military officers in a two week course but by 1948 he was teaching six week courses.Special Agent E.P. Coffey was the first federal polygraph examiner and he established the first federal research program in the USA. The first espionage cases were examined with the polygraph in 1938. The use of the polygraph in criminal investigations in the USA started to make considerable progress since then.In the early 1940’s China imported their first instruments. The US Intelligence Department trained their polygraphists. With the split between the mainland and Taiwan all the equipment and personnel went to Taiwan. In 1950 polygraph technology was rejected when Soviet influence dictated that it was "a false witness tool of the imperialists". In 1980 the Chinese Central Department Chief led a technological study group to Japan and concluded that "Lie detectors had a scientific base". In 1990 US polygraph experts were invited to teach in China. After a breakdown of relations a series of lectures was cancelled and the US expert cancelled the contract he had with Chinese authorities. The Chinese then developed their own computerised instruments which was described once by an American as perhaps the best he has seen. They have about 50 active polygraph examiners and plans one for each of the 3000 police districts.Under the leadership of Cleve Backster the first society for polygraph examiners was started in mid 1948 and called International Society for Detection of Deception. His most important contribution so far is the well known Zone comparison technique that was developed in 1960 although some may argue his attempts to lead on the path to standardisation may be even more significant.In the same year India began to use the polygraph. It is said it was used to narrow down the scope of the Mahatma Ghandi assassination plot.Korea, which is now a major user of the polygraph in forensic psychophysiology, had its first examiners trained by the US Army. Currently there are about 123 polygraphists in Korea of which 70 are practising. In Korea only the military and law enforcement establishments use the polygraph.Victor Cohen, a prominent polygraph examiner in Israel was trained at the Reid College in Chicago Illinois in 1959 and became the first polygraphist of the Israeli Intelligence community. He led the way together with Ari Hadar to establish the polygraph as an investigative tool in that country. There are currently about 60 examiners of which half are in private practice.During the 1960’s important changes and developments were made to the question techniques and test formats used. In 1960 David Lykken conducted research at the University of Minnesota Medical School and in one study found that, even though considerable training in countermeasure activity was given to his subjects, he was able to identify lying subjects with 100% accuracy and he opined that guilty knowledge method could yield as very high ie as high validities as could be expected from laboratory studies. His definition of this method includes other frequently used test formats.Instrument refinement and ways to counter the influence of deliberate movement followed during the next two decades. At the same time researchers started to make important contributions regarding the validity of the technique.In 1974 and the next year the Romanian Police started to investigate the possibilities of forensic application of the polygraph. From 1978 onwards much benefit flowed from its utility and the policemen began to gain confidence in the accuracy of the polygraph. Romania now boasts a polygraph training school. Polygraph results are used fairly frequently by the judiciary in Romania.Forensic psychophysiology grew with tremendous speed in Turkey. Between 1984 and 1988 the profession there grew from nil to 60. It trains its own polygraphists now and modelled their quality control procedures.An important contribution came from Dr Frank Horvath of the Michigan State University in 1979. He compared the reliability of the voice stress technique with that of the galvanic skin response (the latter is one of the multiple instruments comprising almost all modern polygraphs) and found that the voice stress technique (PSE) was not effective in detecting deception. A similar study done in Japan by scientists involved with the Japanese Police yielded results in 1979 that showed that the voice stress technique was reliable at less then chance level. In the same year a related study done in Canada at the Royal Ottawa Hospital confirmed the findings above. Many questions remain even with a more modern version of instrument with which voice stress is measured and there is as yet no substantive empirical evidence that supports its validity and consistent accuracy.Under the direction of Dr David Raskin a research project was launched that was funded by the University of Utah, the US Department of Justice and the National Institute of Health. Many interesting facts were uncovered but it is meaningful that decisions based on observation of gestures and non verbal behaviour as well as verbal behaviour were more than 50% incorrect in the case of innocent subjects.In 1993 polygraph training was started at an institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Russia. Two computerized instruments are being built there namely the Inex and Avex.At the time José A. Fernandez de Landa, a former hostage rescue team police officer, was trained by Victor H. Cohen at The Israel Polygraph, Tel Aviv, after been his assistant (in Spain) for more than 5 years, Mr. Fernandez de Landa makes un important contribution to develop the polygraph use in Latin America as well he is doing in Europe. In 2003 he founded the European Polygraph Association “Europolygraph”.
